Theodor N=F6ldeke: THE QUR'AN

From: Subject: =?Windows-1252?Q?Theodor_N=F6ldeke:_THE_QUR'AN?= Date: Sun, 20 Jan 2008 22:06:06 -0500 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="Windows-1252" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://www.answering-islam.org/Books/Noeldeke/quran.htm X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2900.3198 Theodor N=F6ldeke: THE QUR'AN

THE QUR'AN

An Introduction by Theodor N=F6ldeke

The Qur'an (Kor'an) is the foundation of Islam. It is the sacred book = of more=20 than a hundred millions of men, some of them nations of immemorial = civilization,=20 by all of whom it is regarded as the immediate word of God. And since = the use of=20 the Qur'an in public worship, in schools and otherwise, is much more = extensive=20 than, for example, the reading of the Bible in most Christian countries, = it has=20 truly been described as the most widely-read book in existence. This=20 circumstance alone is sufficient to give it an urgent claim on our = attention,=20 whether it suit our taste and fall in with our religious and = philosophical views=20 or not. Besides, it is the work of Muhammad, and as such is fitted to = afford a=20 clue to the spiritual development of that most successful of all = prophets and=20 religious personalities. It must be owned that the first perusal leaves = on a=20 European an impression of chaotic confusion, - not that the book is very = extensive, for it is not quite so large as the New Testament. This = impression=20 can in some degree be modified only by the application of a critical = analysis=20 with the assistance of Arabian tradition.

To the faith of the Muslims, as has been said, the Qur'an is the word = of God,=20 and such also is the claim which the book itself advances. For except in = sura i.=20 - which is a prayer for men - and some passages where Muhammad (vi. = 104,114;=20 xxvii. 93; xlii. 8), or the angels (xix. 65; xxxvii. 164 sqq.), speak in = the=20 first person without the intervention of the usual imperative "say" = (sing. or=20 pl.), the speaker throughout is God, either in the first person = singular, or=20 more commonly the plural of majesty, "we." The same mode of address is = familiar=20 to us from the prophets of the Old Testament; the human personality = disappears,=20 in the moment of inspiration, behind the God by whom it is filled. But = all the=20 greatest Hebrew prophets fall back speedily upon the unassuming human = "I"; while=20 in the Qur'an the divine "I" is the stereotyped form of address. = Muhammad,=20 however, really felt himself to be the instrument of God; this = consciousness was=20 no doubt brighter at his first appearance than it afterwards became, but = it=20 never entirely forsook him. We might therefore readily pardon him for = giving=20 out, not only the results of imaginative and emotional excitement, but = also many=20 expositions or decrees which were the outcome of cool calculation, as = the word=20 of God, if he had only attained the pure moral attitude which in an = Isaiah or a=20 Jeremiah fills us with admiration after the lapse of ages.

The rationale of revelation is explained in the Qur'an itself as = follows: In=20 heaven is the original text ("the mother of the book," xliii. 3; "a = concealed=20 book," lv. 77; "a well-guarded tablet," lxxxv. 22). By a process of = "sending=20 down" (tanzil), one piece after another was communicated to the = Prophet.=20 The mediator was an angel, who is called sometimes the "Spirit" (xxvi. = 193),=20 sometimes the holy Spirit (xvi. 104), and at a later time "Gabriel" (ii. = 91).=20 This angel dictates the revelation to the Prophet, who repeats it after = him, and=20 afterwards proclaims it to the world (lxxxvii. 6; etc.). It is plain = that we=20 have here a somewhat crude attempt of the Prophet to represent to = himself the=20 more or less unconscious process by which his ideas arose and gradually = took=20 shape in his mind. It is no wonder if in such confused imagery the = details are=20 not always self-consistent. When, for example, this heavenly archetype = is said=20 to be in the hands of an exalted "scribe" (lxxx. 13 sqq.), this seems a=20 transition to a quite different set of ideas, namely, the books of fate, = or the=20 record of all human actions - conceptions which are actually found in = the=20 Qur'an. It is to be observed at all events, that Muhammad's = transcendental idea=20 of God, as a Being altogether above the world, excludes the thought of a = direct=20 intercourse between the prophet and God.

It is an explicit statement of the Qur'an that the sacred book was = revealed=20 ("sent down") by God, not all at once, but piecemeal and gradually (xxv. = 34).=20 This is evident from the actual composition of the book, and is = confirmed by=20 Muslim tradition. That is to say Muhammad issued his revelations in = fly-leaves=20 of greater or less extent. A single piece of this kind was called = either, like=20 the entire collection, qur'an, i.e., "reading," or rather = "recitation";=20 or kitab, i.e., "writing"; or sura, which is the = late-Hebrew=20 shura, and means literally "series." The last became, in the = lifetime of=20 Muhammad, the regular designation of the individual sections as = distinguished=20 from the whole collection; and accordingly it is the name given to the = separate=20 chapters of the existing Qur'an. These chapters are of unequal length. = Since=20 many of the shorter ones are undoubtedly complete in themselves, it is = natural=20 to assume that the longer, which are sometimes very comprehensive, have = arisen=20 from the amalgamation of various originally distinct revelations. This=20 supposition is favored by the numerous traditions which give us the=20 circumstances under which this or that short piece, now incorporated in = a larger=20 section, was revealed; and also by the fact that the connection of = thought in=20 the present suras often seems to be interrupted. And in reality many = pieces of=20 the long suras have to be severed out as originally independent; even in = the=20 short ones parts are often found which cannot have been there at first. = At the=20 same time we must beware of taking this sifting operation too far - as I = now=20 believe myself to have done in my earlier works, and as Sprenger in his = great=20 book on Muhammad also sometimes seems to do. That some suras were of=20 considerable length from the first is seen, for example, from xii., = which=20 contains a short introduction, then the history of Joseph, and then a = few=20 concluding observations, and is therefore perfectly homogeneous. In like = manner,=20 xx., which is mainly occupied with the history of Moses, forms a = complete whole.=20 The same is true of xviii., which at first sight seems to fall into = several=20 pieces; the history of the seven sleepers, the grotesque narrative about = Moses,=20 and that about Alexander "the Horned," are all connected together and = the same=20 rhyme runs through the whole sura. Even in the separate narrations we = may=20 observe how readily the Qur'an passes from one subject to another, how = little=20 care is taken to express all the transitions of thought, and how = frequent=20 clauses are omitted, which are almost indispensable. We are not at = liberty,=20 therefore, in every case where the connection in the Qur'an is obscure, = to say=20 that it is really broken, and set it down as the clumsy patchwork of a = later=20 hand. Even in the old Arabic poetry such abrupt transitions are of very = frequent=20 occurrence. It is not uncommon for the Qur'an, after a new subject has = been=20 entered on, to return gradually or suddenly to the former theme - a = proof that=20 there at least separation is not to be thought of. In short, however = imperfectly=20 the Qur'an may have been redacted, in the majority of cases the present = suras=20 are identical with the originals.

How these revelations actually arose in Muhammad's mind is a question = which is almost as idle to discuss as it would be to analyze = the workings=20 of the mind of a poet. In his early career, sometimes perhaps in its = later=20 stages also, many revelations must have burst from him in uncontrollable = excitement, so that he could not possibly regard them otherwise than as = divine=20 inspirations. We must bear in mind that he was no cold systematic = thinker, but=20 an Oriental visionary, brought up in crass superstition, and without=20 intellectual discipline; a man whose nervous temperament had been = powerfully=20 worked on by ascetic austerities, and who was all the more irritated by = the=20 opposition he encountered, because he had little of the heroic in his = nature.=20 Filled with his religious ideas and visions he might well fancy he heard = the=20 angel bidding him to recite what was said to him. There may have been = many a=20 revelation of this kind which no one ever heard but himself, as he = repeated it=20 to himself in the silent of the night (lxxiii. 4). Indeed the Qur'an = itself=20 admits that he forgot some revelations (lxxxvii. 6). But by far the = greatest=20 part of the book is undoubtedly the result of=20 deliberation, touched more or less with = emotion=20 and animated by a certain rhetorical rather than poetical glow. Many = passages=20 are based upon purely intellectual reflection. It is said that Muhammad=20 occasionally uttered such a passage immediately after one of those = epileptic=20 fits which not only his followers, but (for a time at least) he himself = also,=20 regarded as tokens of intercourse with the higher powers. If that is the = case,=20 it is impossible to say whether the trick was in the utterance of the = revelation=20 or in the fit itself.

How the various pieces of the Qur'an took literary form is uncertain. = Muhammad himself, so far as we can discover, never wrote down anything. = The=20 question whether he could read and write has been much debated among = Muslims,=20 unfortunately more with dogmatic arguments and spurious traditions than=20 authentic proofs. At present, one is inclined to say that he was not = altogether=20 ignorant of these arts, but that from want of practice he found it = convenient to=20 employ someone else whenever he had anything to write. After the = emigration to=20 Medina (A.D. 622) we are told that short pieces - chiefly legal = decisions - were=20 taken down immediately after they were revealed, by an adherent whom he = summoned=20 for the purpose; so that nothing stood in the way of their publication. = Hence it=20 is probable that in Mecca, where, as in a mercantile town, writing was = commoner=20 than in Medina, a place of agriculture, he had already begun to have his = oracles=20 committed to writing. That even long portions of the Qur'an existed in = written=20 form from an early date may be pretty safely inferred from various = indications,=20 especially from the fact that in Mecca the Prophet had caused insertions = to be=20 made, and pieces to be erased, in his previous revelations. For we = cannot=20 suppose that he knew the longer suras by heart so perfectly that he was = able=20 after a time to lay his finger upon any particular passage. In some = instances,=20 indeed, he may have relied too much on his memory. For example, he seems = to have=20 occasionally dictated the same sura to different persons in slightly = different=20 terms. In such cases, no doubt, he may have partly intended to introduce = improvements; and so long as the difference was merely in expression, = without=20 affecting the sense, it could occasion no perplexity to his followers. = None of=20 them had literary pedantry enough to question the consistency of the = divine=20 revelation on that ground. In particular instances, however, the = difference of=20 reading was too important to be overlooked. Thus the Qur'an itself = confesses=20 that the unbelievers cast it up as a reproach to the Prophet that God = sometimes=20 substituted one verse for another (xvi. 103). On one occasion, when a = dispute=20 arose between two of his own followers as to the true reading of a = passage which=20 both had received from the Prophet himself, Muhammad is said to have = explained=20 that the Qur'an was revealed in seven forms. In this dictum, which = perhaps is=20 genuine, seven stands, of course, as in many other cases, for an = indefinite but=20 limited number. But one may imagine what a world of trouble it has cost = the=20 Muslim theologians to explain the saying in accordance with their = dogmatic=20 beliefs. A great number of explanations are current, some of which claim = the=20 authority of the Prophet himself; as, indeed fictitious utterances of = Muhammad=20 play throughout a conspicuous part in the exegesis of the Qur'an. One = very=20 favorite, but utterly untenable interpretation is that the "seven forms" = are=20 seven different dialects.

When such discrepancies came to the cognisance of Muhammad it was = doubtless=20 his desire that only one of the conflicting texts should be considered=20 authentic, only he never gave himself much trouble to have his wish = carried into=20 effect. Although in theory he was an upholder of verbal inspiration, he = did not=20 push the doctrine to its extreme consequences; his practical good sense = did not=20 take these things so strictly as the theologians of later centuries. = Sometimes,=20 however, he did suppress whole sections or verses, enjoining his = followers to=20 efface or forget them, and declaring them to be "abrogated." A very = remarkable=20 case is that of the two verses in liii., when he had recognized three = heathen=20 goddesses as exalted beings, possessing influence with God. This he had = done in=20 a moment of weakness, to win his countrymen by a compromise which still = left=20 Allah in the highest rank. He attained his purpose indeed, but was soon = visited=20 by remorse, and declared the words in question to have been inspirations = of the=20 Evil One.

So much for the abrogated readings; the case is somewhat different = when we=20 come to the abrogation of laws and directions to the Muslims, which = often occurs=20 in the Qur'an. There is nothing in this at variance with Muhammad's idea = of God.=20 God is to him an absolute despot, who declares a thing right or wrong = from no=20 inherent necessity, but by His arbitrary fiat. This God varies His = commands at=20 pleasure, prescribes one law for the Christians, another for the Jews = and a=20 third for the Muslims; nay, He even changes His instructions to the = Muslims when=20 it pleases Him. Thus, for example, the Qur'an contains very different=20 directions, suited to varying circumstances, as to the treatment which = idolaters=20 are to receive at the hands of believers. But Muhammad showed no anxiety = to have=20 these superseded enactments destroyed. Believers could be in no = uncertainty as=20 to which of the two contradictory passages remained on force; and they = might=20 still find edification in that which had become obsolete. That later = generations=20 might not so easily distinguish the "abrogated" from the "abrogating" = did not=20 occur to Muhammad, whose vision, naturally enough, seldom extended to = the future=20 of his religious community. Current events were invariably kept in view = in the=20 revelations. In Medina it called for the admiration of the Faithful to = observe=20 how often God gave them an answer to a question whose settlement was = urgently=20 required at the moment. The same naivet=E9 appears in the remark of the = Caliph=20 Uthman about a doubtful case: "If the Apostle of God were still alive, = methinks=20 there had been a Qur'an passage revealed on this point." Not = infrequently the=20 divine word was found to coincide with the advice which Muhammad had = received=20 from his most intimate disciples. "Umar was many a time of a certain = opinion,"=20 says one tradition, "and the Qur'an was then revealed accordingly."

The contents of the different parts of the Qur'an are extremely = varied. Many=20 passages consist of theological or moral reflections. We are reminded of = the=20 greatness, the goodness, the righteousness of God as manifested in = Nature, in=20 history, and in revelation through the prophets, especially through = Muhammad.=20 God is magnified as the One, the All-powerful. Idolatry and all = deification of=20 created beings, such as the worship of Christ as the Son of God, are = unsparingly=20 condemned. The joys of heaven and the pains of hell are depicted in = vivid=20 sensuous imagery, as is also the terror of the whole creation at the = advent of=20 last day and the judgment of the world. Believers receive general moral=20 instruction, as well as directions for special circumstances. The = lukewarm are=20 rebuked, the enemies threatened with terrible punishment, both temporal = and=20 eternal. To the skeptical the truth of Islam is held forth; and a = certain, not=20 very cogent, method of demonstration predominates. In many passages the = sacred=20 book falls into a diffuse preaching-style, others seem more like = proclamations=20 or general orders. A great number contain ceremonial or civil laws, or = even=20 special commands to individuals down to such matters as the regulation = of=20 Muhammad's harem. In not a few, definite questions are answered which = had=20 actually been propounded to the Prophet by believers or infidels. = Muhammad=20 himself, too, repeatedly receives direct injunctions, and does not = escape an=20 occasional rebuke. One sura (i.) is a prayer, two (cxiii., cxiv.) are = magical=20 formulas. Many suras treat of a single topic, others embrace = several.

From the mass of material comprising the Qur'an - and the account we = have=20 given is far from exhaustive - we should select the histories of the = ancient=20 prophets and the saints as possessing a peculiar interest. The purpose = of=20 Muhammad is to show from these histories how God in former times had = rewarded=20 the righteous and punished their enemies. For the most part the old = prophets=20 only serve to introduce a little variety in point of form, for they are = almost=20 in every case facsimiles of Muhammad himself. They preach exactly like = him, they=20 have to bring the very same charges against their opponents, who on = their part=20 behave exactly as the unbelieving inhabitants of Mecca. The Qur'an even = goes as=20 far as to make Noah contend against the worship of certain false gods, = mentioned=20 by name, who were worshipped by the Arabs of Muhammad's time. In an = address=20 which is put in the mouth of Abraham (xxvi. 75 sqq.), the reader quite = forgets=20 that it is Abraham, and not Muhammad (or God Himself), who is speaking. = Other=20 narratives are intended rather for amusement, although they are always = well=20 seasoned with edifying phrases. It is no wonder that the godless = Quraishites=20 thought these stories of the Qur'an not so interesting as those of = Rostam and=20 Ispandiar related by Nadr the son of Harith, who, when travelling as a = merchant,=20 had learned on the Euphrates the heroic mythology of the Persians. But = the=20 Prophet was so exasperated by this rivalry that when Nadr fell into his = power=20 after the battle of Badr, he caused him to be executed; although in all = other=20 cases he readily pardoned his fellow countrymen.

These histories are chiefly about Scripture characters, especially = those of=20 the Old Testament. But the deviations from the Biblical narratives are = very=20 marked. Many of the alterations are found in the legendary anecdotes of = the=20 Jewish Aggada and the New Testament Apocrypha; but many more are due to=20 misconceptions such as only a listener (not the reader of a book) could = fall=20 into. The most ignorant Jew could never have mistaken Haman (the = minister of=20 Ahasuerus) for the minister of Pharaoh, or identified Miriam the sister = of Moses=20 with Mary (=3DMiriam) the mother of Christ. In addition to such = misconceptions=20 there are sundry capricious alterations, some of them very grotesque, = due to=20 Muhammad himself. For instance, in his ignorance of everything outside = Arabia,=20 he makes the fertility of Egypt - where rain is almost never seen and = never=20 missed - depend on rain instead of the inundations of the Nile (xii. = 49). The=20 strange tale of "the Horned" (i.e., Alexander the Great, xviii. 82 sqq.) = reflects, as has been lately discovered, a rather absurd story, written = by a=20 Syrian in the beginning of the sixth century; we may believe that the = substance=20 of it was related to the Prophet by some Christian. Besides Jewish and = Christian=20 histories, there are a few about old Arabian prophets. In these he seems = to have=20 handled his materials even more freely than in others.

The opinion has already been expressed that Muhammad did not make use = of=20 written sources. Coincidences and divergences alike can always be = accounted for=20 by oral communications from the Jews who knew a little and Christians = who knew=20 next to nothing. Even in the rare passages where we can trace direct=20 resemblances to the text of the Old Testament (comp. xxi. 105 with Ps. = xxxvii.=20 29; i. 5 with Ps. xxvii. 11) or the New (comp. vii. 48 with Luke xvi. = 24; xlvi.=20 19 with Luke xvi. 25), there is nothing more than might readily have = been picked=20 up in a conversation with any Jew or Christian. In Medina, where he had = the=20 opportunity of becoming acquainted with Jews of some culture, he learned = some=20 things out of the Mishna, e.g., v. 35 corresponds almost word for word = with=20 Mishna Sanh. iv. 5; compare also ii. 183 with Mishna Ber. i. 2. That = these are=20 only cases of oral communication will be admitted by anyone with the = slightest=20 knowledge of the circumstances. Otherwise we might even conclude that = Muhammad=20 had studied the Talmud; e.g., the regulation as to ablution by rubbing = with=20 sand, where water cannot be obtained (iv. 46), corresponds to a Talmudic = ordinance (Ber. 15a). Of Christianity he can have been able to learn = very little=20 even in Medina; as may be seen from the absurd travesty of the = institution of=20 the Eucharist in v. 112 sqq. For the rest, it is highly probable that = before the=20 Qur'an no real literary production - anything that could be strictly = called a=20 book - existed in the Arabic language.

In point of style and artistic effect, the different parts of the = Qur'an are=20 of very unequal value. An unprejudiced and critical reader will = certainly find=20 very few passages where his aesthetic susceptibilities are thoroughly = satisfied.=20 But he will often be struck, especially in the older pieces, by a wild = force of=20 passion, and a vigorous, if not rich, imagination. Descriptions of = heaven and=20 hell, and allusions to God's working in Nature, not infrequently show a = certain=20 amount of poetic power. In other places also the style is sometimes = lively and=20 impressive, though it is rare indeed that we come across such strains of = touching simplicity as in the middle of xciii. The greater part of the = Qur'an's=20 message is decidedly prosaic; and so indeed is its style. Of course, = with such a=20 variety of material, we cannot expect every part to be equally = vivacious, or=20 imaginative, or poetic. A decree about the right of inheritance, or = point of=20 ritual, must necessarily be expressed in prose, if it is to be = intelligible. No=20 one complains of the civil laws in Exodus or the sacrificial ritual in = Leviticus=20 because they want the fire of Isaiah or the tenderness of Deuteronomy. = But=20 Muhammad's mistake consists in persistent and slavish adherence to the=20 semi-poetic form which he had at first adopted in accordance with his = own taste=20 and that of his hearers. For instance, he employs rhyme in dealing with = the most=20 prosaic subjects, and thus produces the disagreeable effect of = incongruity=20 between style and matter. It has to be considered, however, that many of = those=20 sermonizing pieces which are so tedious to us, especially when we read = two or=20 three in succession (perhaps in a very inadequate translation), must = have had a=20 quite different effect when recited under the burning sky and on the = barren soil=20 of Mecca. There, thoughts about God's greatness and man's duty, which = are=20 familiar to us from childhood, were all new to the hearers - it is = hearers we=20 have to think of in the first instance, not readers - to whom, at the = same time,=20 every allusion had a meaning which often escapes our notice. When = Muhammad spoke=20 of the goodness of the Lord in creating the clouds, and bringing them = across the=20 cheerless desert, and pouring them out on the earth to restore its rich=20 vegetation, that must have been a picture of thrilling interest to the = Arabs,=20 who are accustomed to see from three to five years elapse before a = copious=20 shower comes to clothe the wilderness once more with luxuriant pastures. = It=20 requires an effort for us, under our clouded skies, to realize in some = degree=20 the intensity of that impression.

The fact that scraps of poetical phraseology are specially numerous = in the=20 earlier suras, enables us to understand why the prosaic mercantile = community of=20 Mecca regarded their eccentric townsman as a "poet," or even a = "possessed poet."=20 Muhammad had to disclaim such titles, because he felt himself to be a=20 divinely-inspired prophet; but we too, from our standpoint, shall fully = acquit=20 him of poetic genius. Like many other predominantly religious = characters, he had=20 no appreciation of poetic beauty; and if we may believe one anecdote = related of=20 him, at a time when everyone made verses, he affected ignorance of the = most=20 elementary prosody. Hence the style of the Qur'an is not poetical but=20 rhetorical; and the powerful effect which some portions produce on us is = gained=20 by rhetorical means. Accordingly the sacred book has not even the = artistic form=20 of poetry; which, among the Arabs, includes a stringent meter as well as = rhyme.=20 The Qur'an is never metrical, and only a few exceptionally eloquent = portions=20 fall into a sort of spontaneous rhythm. On the other hand, the rhyme is=20 regularly maintained; although, especially in the later pieces, after a = very=20 slovenly fashion. Rhymed prose was a favorite form of composition among = the=20 Arabs of that day, and Muhammad adopted it; but if it imparts a certain=20 sprightliness to some passages, it proves on the whole a burdensome = yoke. The=20 Muslims themselves have observed that the tyranny of the rhyme often = makes=20 itself apparent in derangement of the order of words and in the choice = of verbal=20 forms which would not otherwise have been employed, e.g., an imperfect = instead=20 of a perfect. In one place, to save the rhyme, he calls Mount Sinai = Sinin=20 (xcv. 2) instead of Sina (xxiii. 20); in another Elijah is called = Ilyasin (xxxvii. 130) instead of Ilyas (vi. 85, xxxvii. = 123). The=20 substance even is modified to suit the exigencies of rhyme. Thus the = Prophet=20 would scarcely have fixed on the usual number of "eight" angels round = the throne=20 of God (lxix. 17) if the word thamaniyah, "eight" had not = happened to=20 fall in so well with the rhyme. And when lv. speaks of "two" heavenly = gardens,=20 each with "two" fountains and "two" kinds of fruit, and again of "two" = similar=20 gardens, all this is simply because the dual termination (-an)=20 corresponds to the syllable that controls the rhyme in that whole sura. = In the=20 later pieces, Muhammad often inserts edifying remarks, entirely out of = keeping=20 with the context, merely to complete his rhyme. In Arabic it is such an = easy=20 thing to accumulate masses of words with the same termination, that the = gross=20 negligence of the rhyme in the Qur'an is doubly remarkable. One may say = that=20 this is another mark of the Prophet's want of mental training and = incapacity for=20 introspective criticism.

On the whole, while many parts of the Qur'an undoubtedly have = considerable=20 rhetorical power, even over an unbelieving reader, the book, = aesthetically=20 considered, is by no means a first-rate performance. To begin with what = we are=20 most competent to criticize, let us look at some of the more extended=20 narratives. It has already been noticed how vehement and abrupt they are = where=20 they ought to be characterized by epic repose. Indispensable links, both = in=20 expression and in the sequence of events, are often omitted, so that to=20 understand these histories is sometimes far easier for us than for those = who=20 learned them first, because we know most of them from better sources. = Along with=20 this, there is a great deal of superfluous verbiage; and nowhere do we = find a=20 steady advance in the narration. Contrast, in these respects, "the most=20 beautiful tale," the history of Joseph (xii.), and its glaring = improprieties,=20 with the story in Genesis, so admirably executed in spite of some slight = discrepancies. Similar faults are found in the non-narrative portions of = the=20 Qur'an. The connection of ideas is extremely loose, and even the syntax = betrays=20 great awkwardness. Anancloutha are of frequent occurrence, and cannot be = explained as conscious literary devices. Many sentences begin with a = "when" or=20 "on the day when," which seem to hover in the air, so that the = commentators are=20 driven to supply a "think of this" or some ellipsis. Again, there is no = great=20 literary skill evinced in the frequent and needless harping on the same = words=20 and phrases; in xviii., for example, "till that" (hatta idha) = occurs no=20 fewer than eight times. Muhammad, in short, is not in any sense a master = of=20 style. This opinion will be endorsed by any European who reads through = the book=20 with an impartial spirit and some knowledge of the language, without = taking into=20 account the tiresome effect of its endless iterations. But in the ears = of every=20 pious Muslim such a judgment will sound almost as shocking as downright = atheism=20 or polytheism. Among the Muslims, the Qur'an has always been looked on = as the=20 most perfect model of style and language. This feature of it is in their = theology the greatest of all miracles, the incontestable proof of its = divine=20 origin. Such a view on the part of men who knew Arabic infinitely better = than=20 the most accomplished European Arabist will ever do, may well startle = us. In=20 fact, the Qur'an boldly challenged its opponents to produce ten suras, = or even a=20 single one, like those of the sacred book, and they never did so. That, = to be=20 sure, on calm reflection, is not so very surprising. Revelations of the = kind=20 which Muhammad uttered, no unbeliever could produce without making = himself a=20 laughing-stock. However little real originality there is in Muhammad's=20 doctrines, as against his own countrymen he was thoroughly original, = even in the=20 form of his oracles. To compose such revelations at will was beyond the = power of=20 the most expert literary artist; it would have required either a prophet = or a=20 shameless impostor. And if such a character appeared after Muhammad, = still he=20 could never be anything but an imitator, like the false prophets who = arose about=20 the time of his death and afterwards. That the adversaries should = produce any=20 sample whatsoever of poetry or rhetoric equal to the Qur'an is not at = all what=20 the Prophet demands. In that case he would have been put to shame, even = in the=20 eyes of many of his own followers, by the first poem that came to hand.=20 Nevertheless, it is on such a false interpretation of this challenge = that the=20 dogma of the incomparable excellence of the style and diction of the = Qur'an is=20 based. The rest has been accomplished by dogmatic prejudice, which is = quite=20 capable of working other miracles besides turning a defective literary=20 production into an unrivaled masterpiece in the eyes of believers. This = view=20 once accepted, the next step was to find everywhere the evidence of the=20 perfection of the style and language. And if here and there, as one can = scarcely=20 doubt, there was among the old Muslims a lover of poetry who had his=20 difficulties about this dogma, he had to beware of uttering an opinion = which=20 might have cost him his head. We know of at least one rationalistic = theologian=20 who defined the dogma in such a way that we can see he did not believe = in it=20 (Shahrastani, p. 39). The truth is, it would have been a miracle indeed = if the=20 style of the Qur'an had been perfect. For although there was at that = time a=20 recognized poetical style, already degenerating to mannerism, a prose = style did=20 not exist. All beginnings are difficult; and it can never be esteemed a = serious=20 charge against Muhammad that his book, the first prose work of a high = order in=20 the language, testifies to the awkwardness of the beginner. And further, = we must=20 always remember that entertainment and aesthetic effect were at most = subsidiary=20 objects. The great aim was persuasion and conversion; and, say what we = will,=20 that aim has been realized on the most imposing scale.

Muhammad repeatedly calls attention to the fact that the Qur'an is = not=20 written, like other sacred books, in a strange language, but in Arabic, = and=20 therefore is intelligible to all. At that time, along with foreign = ideas, many=20 foreign words had crept into the language, especially Aramaic terms for=20 religious conceptions of Jewish and Christian origin. Some of these had = already=20 passed into general use, while others were confined to a more limited = circle.=20 Muhammad, who could not fully express his new ideas in the common = language of=20 his countrymen, but had frequently to find out new terms for himself, = made free=20 use of such Jewish and Christian words, as was done, though perhaps to a = smaller=20 extent, by certain thinkers and poets of that age who had more or less = risen=20 above the level of heathenism. In Muhammad's case this is the less = wonderful,=20 because he was indebted to the instruction of Jews and Christians whose = Arabic -=20 as the Qur'an pretty clearly intimates with regard to one of them - was = very=20 defective. Nor is it very surprising to find that his use of such words = is=20 sometimes as much at fault as his comprehension of the histories which = he=20 learned from the same people - that he applies Aramaic expressions as=20 incorrectly as many uneducated persons now employ words derived from the = French.=20 Thus, furqan means really "redemption," but Muhammad (misled by = the=20 Arabic meaning of the root frq, "sever, decide") uses it for=20 "revelation." Milla is properly "word," but in the Qur'an = "religion."=20 Illiyun (lxxxiii. 18,19.) is apparently the Hebrew name of God,=20 Elyon, "the Most High"; Muhammad uses it of a heavenly book (see = S.=20 Fraenkel, De vocabulisin antiquis Arabum carminibus et in Corano=20 peregrinis, Leyden 1880, p. 23.). So again the word mathani = is, as=20 Geiger has conjectured, the regular Arabic plural of the Aramaic=20 mathnitha, which is the same as the Hebrew Mishna, and = denotes, in=20 Jewish usage, a legal decision of some of the ancient Rabbins. But in = the Qur'an=20 "the seven Mathani" (xv. 87) are probably the seven verses of sura i., = so that=20 Muhammad appears to have understood it in the sense of "saying" or = "sentence"=20 (comp. xxxix. 24). Words of Christian origin are less frequent in the = Qur'an. It=20 is an interesting fact that of these a few have come over from the = Abyssinian,=20 such as hawariyun, "apostles"; maida, "table," and two or = three=20 others; these all make their first appearance in the suras of the = Medinan=20 period. The word shaitan, which was borrowed, at least in the = first=20 instance, from the Abyssinian, had probably been already introduced into = the=20 language. Sprenger has rightly observed that Muhammad makes a certain = parade of=20 these foreign words, as of other peculiarly constructed expressions; in = this he=20 followed a favorite practice of contemporary poets. It is the tendency = of the=20 imperfectly educated to delight in out-of-the-way expressions, and on = such minds=20 they readily produce a remarkably solemn and mysterious impression. This = was=20 exactly the kind of effect that Muhammad desired, and to secure it he = seems even=20 to have invented a few odd vocables, as ghislin (lxix. 36), = sijjin=20 (lxxxiii. 7,8), tasnim (lxxxiii. 27), and salsabil (lxxvi. = 18).=20 But, of course, the necessity of enabling his hearers to understand the = ideas=20 which they must have found sufficiently novel in themselves, imposed = tolerably=20 narrow limits on such eccentricities.

The constituents of our present Qur'an belong partly to the Mecca = period=20 (before A.D. 622), partly to the period commencing with the emigration = to Medina=20 (from the autumn of 622 to 8th June 632). Muhammad's position in Medina = was=20 entirely different from that which he had occupied in his native town. = In the=20 former he was from the first the leader of a powerful party, and = gradually=20 became the autocratic ruler of Arabia; in the latter he was only the = despised=20 preacher of a small congregation. This difference, as was to be = expected,=20 appears in the Qur'an. The Medina pieces, whether entire suras or = isolated=20 passages interpolated in Meccan suras, are accordingly pretty broadly = distinct=20 as to their contents, from those issued in Mecca. In the great majority = of cases=20 there can be no doubt whatever whether a piece first saw the light in = Mecca or=20 Medina; and, for the most part, the internal evidence is borne out by = Muslim=20 tradition. And since the revelations given in Medina frequently take = notice of=20 events about which we have pretty accurate information, and whose dates = are at=20 least approximately known, we are often in a position to fix their date = with, at=20 any rate, considerable certainty; here again, tradition renders valuable = assistance. Even with regard to the Medina passages, however, a great = deal=20 remains uncertain, partly because the allusions to historical events and = circumstances are general rather than particular, partly because = traditions=20 about the occasion of the revelation of the various pieces are often=20 fluctuating, and often rest on misunderstanding or arbitrary conjecture. = But, at=20 all events, it is far easier to arrange in some sort of chronological = order the=20 Medina suras than those composed in Mecca. There is, indeed, one = tradition which=20 professes to furnish a chronological list of all the suras. But not to = mention=20 that it occurs in several divergent forms, and that it takes no account = of the=20 fact that our present suras are partly composed of pieces of different = dates, it=20 contains so many suspicious or undoubtedly false statements that it is=20 impossible to attach any great importance to it. Besides, it is a = priori=20 unlikely that a contemporary of Muhammad should have drawn up such a = list; and=20 if any one had made the attempt, he would have found it almost = impossible to=20 obtain reliable information as to the order of the earlier Meccan suras. = We have=20 in this list no genuine tradition, but rather the lucubrations of an = undoubtedly=20 conscientious Muslim critic, who may have lived about a century after = the=20 emigration.

Among the revelations put forth in Mecca there is a considerable = number of=20 (for the most part) short suras, which strike at every attentive reader = as being=20 the oldest. They are in an altogether different strain from many others, = and in=20 their whole composition they show the least resemblance to the Medina = pieces. It=20 is no doubt conceivable - as Sprenger supposes - that Muhammad might = have might=20 have returned at intervals to his earlier manner; but since this group = possesses=20 a remarkable similarity of style, and since the gradual formation of a = different=20 style is on the whole an unmistakable fact, the assumption has little=20 probability; and we shall therefore abide by the opinion that these form = a=20 distinct group. At the opposite extreme from them stands another = cluster,=20 showing quite obvious affinities with the style of the Medina suras, = which must=20 therefore be assigned to the later part of the Prophet's work in Mecca. = Between=20 these two groups stand a number of other Meccan suras, which in every = respect=20 mark the transition from the first period to the third. It need hardly = be said=20 that the three periods - which were first distinguished by Professor = Weil - are=20 not separated by sharp lines of division. With regard to some suras, it = may be=20 doubtful whether they ought to be reckoned amongst the middle group, or = with one=20 or the other of the extremes. And it is altogether impossible, within = these two=20 groups, to establish even a probable chronological arrangement of the = individual=20 revelations. In default of clear allusions to well-known events, or = events whose=20 dates can be determined, we might indeed endeavor to trace the = psychological=20 development of the Prophet by means of the Qur'an, and arrange its parts = accordingly. But in such an undertaking one is always apt to take = subjective=20 assumptions or mere fancies for established data. Good traditions about = the=20 origin of the Meccan revelations are not very numerous. In fact, the = whole=20 history of Muhammad previous to his emigration is so imperfectly related = that we=20 are not even sure in what year he appeared as a prophet. Probably it was = in A.D.=20 610; it may have been somewhat earlier, but scarcely later. If, as one = tradition=20 says, xxx. 1 sqq. ("The Romans are overcome in the nearest neighboring = land")=20 refers to the defeat of the Byzantines by the Persians not far from = Damascus,=20 about the spring of 614, it would follow that the third group, to which = this=20 passage belongs, covers the greater part of the Meccan period. And it is = not in=20 itself unlikely that the passionate vehemence which characterizes the = first=20 group was of short duration. Nor is the assumption contradicted by the = tolerably=20 well-attested, though far from incontestable statement, that when Umar = was=20 converted (A.D. 615 or 616) xx., which belongs to the second group, = already=20 existed in writing. But the reference of xxx. 1 sqq. to this particular = battle=20 is by no means so certain that positive conclusions can be drawn from = it. It is=20 the same with other allusions in the Meccan suras to occurrences whose=20 chronology can be partially ascertained. It is better, therefore, to = rest=20 satisfied with a merely relative determination of the order of even the = three=20 great clusters of Meccan revelations.

In the pieces of the first period the convulsive excitement of the = Prophet=20 often expresses itself with the utmost vehemence. He is so carried away = by his=20 emotions that he cannot choose his words; they seem rather to burst from = him.=20 Many of these pieces remind us of the oracles of the old heathen = soothsayers,=20 whose style is known to us from imitations, although we have perhaps not = a=20 single genuine specimen. Like those other oracles, the suras of this = period,=20 which are never very long, are composed of short sentences with = tolerably pure=20 but rapidly changing rhymes. The oaths, too, with which many of them = begin, were=20 largely used by the soothsayers. Some of these oaths are very uncouth = and hard=20 to understand, some of them perhaps were not meant to be understood for = indeed=20 all sorts of strange things are met within these chapters. Here and = there=20 Muhammad speaks of visions, and appears even to see angels before him in = bodily=20 form. There are some intensely vivid descriptions of the resurrection = and the=20 last day, which must have exercised a demonic power over men who were = quite=20 unfamiliar with such pictures. Other pieces paint in glowing colors the = joys of=20 heaven and the pains of hell. However, the suras of this period are not = all so=20 wild as these; and those which are conceived in a calmer mood appear to = be the=20 oldest. Yet, one must repeat, it is exceedingly difficult to make out = any strict=20 chronological sequence. For instance, it is by no means certain whether = the=20 beginning of xcvi. is really what a widely circulated tradition calls = it, the=20 oldest part of the whole Qur'an. That tradition goes back to the = Prophet's=20 favorite wife Aisha; but as she was not (yet) born at the time when the=20 revelation is said to have been made, it can only contain at the best = what=20 Muhammad told her years afterwards, from his own not very clear = recollection,=20 with or without fictitious additions. Aisha, moreover, is by no means = very=20 trustworthy and, besides, there are other pieces mentioned by others as = the=20 oldest. In any case xcvi. 1 sqq. is certainly very early. According to = the=20 traditional view, which appears to be correct, it treats a vision in = which the=20 Prophet receives an injunction to recite a revelation conveyed to him by = the=20 angel. It is interesting to observe that here already two things are = brought=20 forward as proofs of the omnipotence and care of God; one is the = creation of man=20 out of a seminal drop - an idea to which Muhammad often recurs; the = other is the=20 then recently introduced art of writing, which the Prophet instinctively = seizes=20 on as a means of propagating his doctrines. It was only after Muhammad=20 encountered obstinate resistance that the tone of the revelation became=20 thoroughly passionate. In such cases he was not slow to utter terrible = threats=20 against those who ridiculed the preaching of the unity of God, of the=20 resurrection and of the judgment. His own uncle, Abu Lahab, had somewhat = brusquely repelled him, and in a brief special sura (cxi.) he and his = wife are=20 consigned to hell. The suras of this period form almost exclusively the=20 concluding portions of the present text. One is disposed to assume, = however,=20 that they were at one time more numerous, and that many of them were = lost at an=20 early period.

Since Muhammad's strength lay in his enthusiastic and fiery = imagination=20 rather than in the wealth of ideas and clearness of abstract thought on = which=20 exact reasoning depends, it follows that the older suras, in which the = former=20 qualities have free scope, must be more attractive to us than the later. = In the=20 suras of the second period the imaginative glow perceptibly diminishes; = their is=20 still fire and animation, but the tone becomes gradually more prosaic. = As the=20 feverish restlessness subsides, the periods are drawn out, and the = revelations=20 as a whole become longer. The truth of the new doctrine is proved by = accumulated=20 instances of God's working in nature and history; the objections of = opponents,=20 whether advanced in good faith or in jest, are controverted by = arguments; but=20 the demonstration is often confused or even weak. The histories of the = earlier=20 prophets, which had occasionally been briefly touched on in the first = period,=20 are now related sometimes at great length.

There is one piece of the Qur'an belonging to the beginning of this = period,=20 if not to the close of the former, which claims particular notice. This = is i.,=20 the "Lord's Prayer" of the Muslims, and beyond dispute the gem of the = Qur'an.=20 The words of this sura, which is known as al-fatiha ("the opening = one"),=20 are as follows:

1) In the name of God, the compassionate Compassioner. 2) Praise be = (literally "is") to God, the Lord of the worlds, 3) the compassionate=20 Compassioner, 4) The Sovereign of the day of judgment. 5) Thee do we = worship,=20 and of Thee do we beg assistance. 6) Direct us in the right way; 7) in = the way=20 of those to whom Thou hast been gracious, on whom there is no wrath, = and who=20 go not astray.

The thoughts are so simple as to need no explanation; and yet the = prayer is=20 full of meaning. It is true that there is not a single original idea of=20 Muhammad's in it. Several words and turns of expression are borrowed = directly=20 from the Jews, in particular the designation of God as the = "Compassioner,"=20 Rahman. This is simply the Jewish Rahmana, which was a = favorite=20 name for God in the Talmudic period. Muhammad seems for a while to have=20 entertained the thought of adopting al-Rahman as a proper name of = God, in=20 place of Allah, which was already used by the heathens.¹ This = purpose=20 he ultimately relinquished, but it is just in the suras of the second = period=20 that the use of Rahman is specially frequent. It was probably in the = first sura=20 also that Muhammad first introduced the formula, "In the name of God," = etc. It=20 is to be regretted that this prayer must lose its effect through too = frequent=20 use, for every Muslim who says his five prayers regularly - as most of = them do -=20 repeats it no less than twenty times a day.

The suras of the third Meccan period, which form a pretty large part = of our=20 present Qur'an, are almost entirely prosaic. Some of the revelations are = of=20 considerable extent, and the single verses also are much longer than in = the=20 older suras. Only now and then a gleam of poetic power flashes out. A=20 sermonizing tone predominates. The suras are very edifying for one who = is=20 already reconciled to their import, but to us at least, they do not seem = very=20 well fitted to carry conviction to minds of unbelievers. That = impression,=20 however, is not correct, for in reality the demonstration of these = longer Meccan=20 suras appeared to have been peculiarly influential for the propagation = of Islam.=20 Muhammad's mission was not to Europeans, but to a people who, though=20 quick-witted and receptive, were not accustomed to logical thinking, = while they=20 had outgrown their ancient religion.

When we reach the Medina period it becomes, as has been indicated, = much=20 easier to understand the revelation in their historical relations, since = our=20 knowledge of the history of Muhammad in Medina is tolerably complete. In = many=20 cases the historical occasion is perfectly clear, in others we can at = least=20 recognize the general situation from which they arose, and thus = approximately=20 fix their time. There remains, however, a remnant, of which we can only = say it=20 belongs to Medina.

The style of this period bears a pretty close resemblance to that of = the=20 latest Meccan period. It is for the most part pure prose, enriched by = occasional=20 rhetorical embellishments. Yet even here there are many bright and = impressive=20 passages, especially in those sections which may be regarded as = proclamations to=20 the army of the faithful. For the Muslims, Muhammad has different = messages. At=20 one time it is a summons to do battle for the faith; at another, a = series of=20 reflections on recently experienced success or misfortune, or a rebuke = of their=20 weak faith; or an exhortation to virtue, and so on. He often addresses = himself=20 to the "doubters," some of whom vacillate between faith and unbelief, = others=20 make a pretense of faith, while others scarcely take the trouble to do = even=20 that. They are no consolidated party, but to Muhammad they are all = equally=20 vexatious, because, as soon as danger has to be encountered, or a = contribution=20 is levied, they all alike fall away. There are frequent outbursts, ever=20 increasing in bitterness against the Jews, who were very numerous in = Medina and=20 its neighborhood when Muhammad arrived. He has much less to say against = the=20 Christians, with whom he never came closely in contact; and as for the=20 idolaters, there was little occasion in Medina to have many words with = them. A=20 part of the Medina pieces consists of formal laws belonging to the = ceremonial,=20 civil and criminal codes; or directions about temporary complications. = The most=20 objectionable parts of the whole Qur'an are those which treat of = Muhammad's=20 relations with women. The laws and regulations were generally very = concise=20 revelations, but most of them have been amalgamated with other pieces of = similar=20 or dissimilar import, and are now found in very long suras.

Such is an imperfect sketch of the composition and internal history = of the=20 Qur'an, but it is probably sufficient to show that the book is a very=20 heterogeneous collection. If only those passages had been preserved = which had a=20 permanent value for the theology, the ethics or the jurisprudence of the = Muslims, a few fragments would have been amply sufficient. Fortunately = for=20 knowledge, respect for the sacredness of the letter has led to the = collection of=20 all the revelations that could possibly be collected, the "abrogating" = along=20 with the "abrogated," passages referring to passing circumstances as = well as=20 those of lasting importance. Everyone who takes up the book in the = proper=20 religious frame of mind, like most of the Muslims, reads pieces directed = against=20 long obsolete absurd customs of Mecca just as devoutly as the weightiest = moral=20 precepts - perhaps even more devoutly, because he does not understand = them so=20 well.

At the head of twenty-nine of the suras stand certain initial = letters, from=20 which no clear sense can be obtained. Thus, before ii., iii., xxxi., = xxxii. we=20 find ALM (Alif Lam Mim), before xl.-xlvi. HM (Ha Mim). At one time I = suggested=20 that these initials did not belong to Muhammad's text, but might be the=20 monograms of possessors of codices, which, through negligence on the = part of the=20 editors, were incorporated in the final form of the Qur'an; but now I = deem it=20 more probable that they are to be traced to the Prophet himself, as = Sprenger and=20 Loth suppose. One cannot indeed admit the truth of Loth's statement, = that in the=20 proper opening words of these suras we may generally find an allusion to = the=20 accompanying initials; but it can scarcely be accidental that the first = words of=20 the great majority of them (in iii. it is the second verse) contains the = word=20 "book," "revelation," or some equivalent. They usually begin with: "This = is the=20 book," or "Revelation (`down sending') of the book," or something = similar. Of=20 suras which commence in this way only a few (xviii., xxiv., xxv., = xxxix.) lack=20 the initials, while only xxix. and xxx. have the initials and begin = differently.=20 These few exceptions may easily have proceeded from ancient corruptions; = at all=20 events they cannot neutralize the evidence of the greater number. = Muhammad seems=20 to have meant these letters for mystic reference to the archetype text = in=20 heaven. To a man who regarded the art of writing, of which at the best = he had=20 but a slight knowledge, as something supernatural, and who lived amongst = illiterate people, an A B C may well have seemed more significant than = to us who=20 have been initiated into the mysteries of this art from our childhood. = The=20 Prophet himself can hardly have attached any particular meaning to these = symbols; they served their purpose if they conveyed an impression of = solemnity=20 and enigmatical obscurity. In fact, the Qur'an admits that it contains = many=20 things which neither can be, nor were intended to be, understood (iii. = 5). To=20 regard these letters as ciphers is a precarious hypothesis, for the = simple=20 reason that cryptography is not to be looked for in the very infancy of = Arabic=20 writing. If they are actually ciphers, the multiplicity of possible = explanations=20 at once precludes the hope of a plausible interpretation. None of the = efforts in=20 this direction, whether by Muslim scholars or by Europeans, have led to=20 convincing results. This remark applies even to the ingenious conjecture = of=20 Sprenger that the letters KHY'S (Kaf He Ye Ain Sad) before xix. (which = treats of=20 John and Jesus, and, according to tradition, was sent to the king of = Abyssinia)=20 stand for "Jesus Nazarenus Rex Judaeorum." Sprenger arrives at this = explanation=20 by a very artificial method; and besides Muhammad was not as simple as = the=20 traditionalists, who imagined that the Abyssinians could read a piece of = the=20 Arabic Qur'an. It need hardly be said that the Muslims have from old = applied=20 themselves with great assiduity to the decipherment of these initials, = and have=20 sometimes found the deepest mysteries in them. Generally, however, they = are=20 content with the prudent conclusion that God alone knows the meaning of = these=20 letters.

When Muhammad died, the separate pieces of the Qur'an, = notwithstanding their=20 theoretical sacredness, existed only in scattered copies; they were = consequently=20 in great danger to being partially or entirely destroyed. Many Muslims = knew=20 large portions by heart, but certainly no one knew the whole; and a = merely oral=20 propagation would have left the door open to all kinds of deliberate and = inadvertent alterations. Muhammad himself had never thought of an = authentic=20 collection of his revelations; he was usually concerned only with the = object of=20 the moment and the idea that the revelations would be destroyed unless = he made=20 provision for their safe preservation, did not enter his mind. A man = destitute=20 of literary culture has some difficulty in anticipating the fate of = intellectual=20 products. But now, after the death of the Prophet, most of the Arabs = revolted=20 against his successor, and had to be reduced to submission by force. = Especially=20 sanguinary was the contest against the prophet Maslama, an imitator of = Muhammad=20 commonly known by the derisive diminutive Musailima (i.e., "Little = Maslama"). At=20 that time (A.D. 633) many of the most devoted Muslims fell, the very men = who=20 knew most Qur'an pieces by heart. Umar then began to fear that the = Qur'an might=20 be entirely forgotten, and he induced the Caliph Abu Bakr to undertake = the=20 collection of all its parts. The Caliph laid the duty on Zaid, the son = of=20 Thabit, a native of Medina, then about twenty-two years of age, who had = often=20 acted as amanuensis to the Prophet, in whose service he is even said to = have=20 learned the Jewish letters. The account of this collection of the Qur'an = has=20 reached us in several substantially identical forms, and goes back to = Zaid=20 himself. According to it, he collected the revelations from copies = written on=20 flat stones, pieces of leather, ribs of palm-leaves (not palm-leaves=20 themselves), and such like material, but chiefly "from the breasts of = men,"=20 i.e., from their memory. From these he wrote a fair copy, which he gave = to Abu=20 Bakr, from whom it came to his successor Umar, who again bequeathed it = to his=20 daughter Hafsa, one of the widows of the Prophet. This redaction, = commonly=20 called al-suhuf ("the leaves"), had from the first no canonical=20 authority; and its integral arrangement can only be conjectured.

The Muslims were as far as ever from possessing a uniform text of the = Qur'an.=20 The bravest of their warriors sometimes knew deplorably little about it; = distinction on that field they cheerfully accorded to pious men = like Ibn=20 Mas'ud. It was inevitable, however, that discrepancies should emerge = between the=20 texts of professed scholars, and as these men in their several = localities were=20 authorities on the reading of the Qur'an, quarrels began to break out = between=20 the levies from different districts about the true form of the sacred = book.=20 During a campaign in A.H. 30 (A.D. 650-1), Hudaifa, the victor in the = great and=20 decisive battle of Nehawand - which was to the empire of the Sasanians = what=20 Gaugamela was to that of the Achaemenidae - perceived that such disputes = might=20 become dangerous, and therefore urged on the Caliph Uthman the necessity = for a=20 universally binding text. The matter was entrusted to Zaid, who had made = the=20 former collection, with three leading Quraishites. These brought = together as=20 many copies as they could lay their hands on, and prepared an edition = which was=20 to be canonical for all Muslims. To prevent any further disputes, they = burned=20 all the other codices except that of Hafsa, which, however, was = afterwards=20 destroyed by Marwan, the governor of Medina. The destruction of the = earlier=20 codices was an irreparable loss to criticism; but, for the essentially = political=20 object of putting an end to the controversies by admitting only one form = of the=20 common book of religion and of law, this measure was necessary.

The result of these labors is in our hands; as to how they were = conducted we=20 have no trustworthy information, tradition being here too much under the = influence of dogmatic presuppositions. The critical methods of a modern=20 scientific commission will not be expected of an age when the highest = literary=20 education for an Arab consisted in (the) ability to read and write. It = now seems=20 to me highly probable that this second redaction took this simple form: = Zaid=20 read off from the codex which he had previously written, and his = associates,=20 simultaneously or successively, wrote one copy each to his dictation. = These, I=20 suppose, were the three copies which, we are informed, were sent to the = capitals=20 Damascus, Basra and Kufa, to be in the first instance standards for the = soldiers=20 of the respective provinces. A fourth copy would doubtless be retained = at=20 Medina. Be that as it may, it is impossible now to distinguish in the = present=20 form of the book what belongs to the first redaction from what is due to = the=20 second.

In the arrangement of the separate sections, a classification = according to=20 contents was impractical because of the variety of subjects often dealt = with in=20 one sura. A chronological arrangement was out of the question, because = the=20 chronology of the older pieces must have been imperfectly known, and = because in=20 some cases passages of different dates had been joined together. Indeed, = systematic principles of this kind were altogether disregarded at that = period.=20 The pieces were accordingly arranged in indiscriminate order, the only = rule=20 observed being to place the long suras first and the shorter towards the = end,=20 and even that was far from strictly adhered to. The short opening sura = is so=20 placed on account of its superiority to the rest, and two magical = formulae are=20 kept for sort of protection at the end; these are the only special = traces of=20 design. The combination of pieces of different origin may proceed partly = from=20 the processes of the codices from which Zaid compiled his first complete = copy,=20 partly from Zaid himself. The individual suras are separated simply by = the=20 superscription "In the name of God, the compassionate Compassioner," = which is=20 wanting only in the ninth. The additional headings found in our text = (the name=20 of the suras, the number of verses, etc.) were not in the original = codices, and=20 formed no integral part of the Qur'an.

It is said that Uthman directed Zaid and his associates, in cases of=20 disagreement, to follow the Quraish dialect; but, though well attested, = this=20 account can scarcely be correct. The extremely primitive writing of = those days=20 was quite incapable of rendering such minute differences as can have = existed=20 between the pronunciation of Mecca and that of Medina.

Uthman's Qur'an was not complete. Some passages are evidently = fragmentary;=20 and a few detached pieces are still extant which were originally parts = of the=20 Qur'an, although they have been omitted by Zaid. Amongst these are some = which=20 there is no reason to suppose Muhammad desired to suppress. Zaid may = easily have=20 overlooked a few stray fragments, but that he purposely omitted anything = which=20 he believed to belong to the Qur'an is very unlikely. It has been = conjectured=20 that in deference to his superiors he kept out of the book the names of=20 Muhammad's enemies, if they or their families came afterwards to be = respected.=20 But it must be remembered that it was never Muhammad's practice to refer = explicitly to contemporary persons and affairs in the Qur'an. Only a = single=20 friend, his adopted son Zaid (xxxiii. 37), and a single enemy, his uncle = Abu=20 Lahab (cxi.) - and these for very special reasons - are mentioned by = name; and=20 the name of the latter has been left in the Qur'an with a fearful curse = annexed=20 to it, although his son had embraced Islam before the death of Muhammad, = and=20 although his descendants belonged to the high nobility. So, on the other = hand,=20 there is no single verse or clause which can be plausibly made out to be = an=20 interpolation by Zaid at the instance of Abu Bakr, Umar or Uthman. = Slight=20 clerical errors there may have been, but the Qur'an of Uthman's contains = none=20 but genuine elements - though sometimes in very strange order.

It can still be pretty clearly shown in detail that the four codices = of=20 Uthman's Qur'an deviated from one another in points of orthography, in = the=20 insertion or omission of a wa ("and"), and such like minutiae; = but these=20 variations nowhere affect the sense. All later manuscripts are derived = from=20 these four originals.

At the same time, the other forms of the Qur'an did not at once = become=20 extinct. In particular we have some information about the codex of Ubai. = If the=20 list which gives the order of its suras is correct, it must have = contained=20 substantially the same materials as our text; in that case Ubai must = have used=20 the original collection of Zaid. The same is true of the codex of Ibn = Mas'ud, of=20 which we also have a catalogue. It appears that the principle of putting = the=20 longer suras before the shorter was more consistently carried out by him = than by=20 Zaid. He omits i. and the magical formulae of cxiii. and cxiv. Ubai, on = the=20 other hand, had embodied two additional short prayers, whose = authenticity I do=20 not now venture to question, as I formerly did. One can easily = understand that=20 differences of opinion have existed as to whether and how far = formularies of=20 this kind belonged to the Qur'an. Some of the divergent readings of both = these=20 texts have been preserved, as well as a considerable number of other = ancient=20 variants. Most of them are decidedly inferior to the received readings, = but some=20 are quite as good, and a few deserve preference.

The only man who appears to have seriously opposed the general = introduction=20 of Uthman's text is Ibn Mas'ud. He was one of the oldest disciples of = the=20 Prophet, and had often rendered him personal service; but he was a man = of=20 contracted views although he is one of the pillars of Muslim theology. = His=20 opposition had no effect. Now when we consider that at that time there = were many=20 Muslims who had heard the Qur'an from the mouth of the Prophet, that = other=20 measures of the imbecile Uthman met with the most vehement resistance on = the=20 part of the bigoted champions of the faith, that these were still = further=20 incited against him by some of his ambitious old comrades, until at last = they=20 murdered him, and finally that in the civil wars after his death the = several=20 parties were glad of any pretext for branding their opponents as = infidels - when=20 we consider all this, we must regard it as a strong testimony in favor = of=20 Uthman's Qur'an that no party - that of Ali not excepted - repudiated = the text=20 formed by Zaid, who was one of the most devoted adherents of Uthman and = his=20 family, and that even among the Shiites we detect but very few marks of=20 dissatisfaction with the Caliph's conduct in this matter.

But this redaction is not the close of the textual history of the = Qur'an. The=20 ancient Arabic alphabet was very imperfect; it not only lacked marks for = the=20 short, and in part even for the long vowels, but it often expressed = several=20 consonants by the same sign, the forms of the different letters, = formerly=20 clearly distinct, having become by degrees identical. So, for example, = there was=20 but one character to express B,T,Th and in the beginning and in the = middle of=20 words N and Y(I) also. Though the reader who was perfectly familiar with = the=20 language felt no difficulty, as a rule, in discovering which = pronunciation the=20 writer had in view, yet as there were many words which admitted of being = pronounced in very different manners, instances were not infrequent in = which the=20 pronunciation was dubious. This variety of possible readings was at = first very=20 great, and many readers seem to have actually made it their object to = discover=20 pronunciations which were new, provided they were at all appropriate to = the=20 ambiguous text. There was also a dialectic license in grammatical forms, = which=20 had not as yet been greatly restricted. An effort was made by many to = establish=20 a more refined pronunciation for the Qur'an than was usual in common = life or in=20 secular literature. The various schools of "readers" differed widely = from one=20 another; although for the most part there was no important divergence as = to the=20 sense of words. A few of them gradually rose to special authority, and = the rest=20 disappeared. Seven readers are generally reckoned chief authorities, but = for=20 practical purposes this number was continually reduced in process of = time; so=20 that at present only two "reading styles" are actually in use - the = common style=20 of the Hafs and that of Nafi, which prevails in Africa to the west of = Egypt.=20 There is, however, a very comprehensive masoretic literature in which a = number=20 of other styles are indicated. The invention of vowel sounds, of = diacritic=20 points to distinguish similarly formed consonants, and of other = orthographic=20 signs, soon put a stop to arbitrary conjectures on the part of the = readers. Many=20 zealots objected to the introduction of these innovations in the sacred = text,=20 but theological consistency had to yield to practical necessity. In = accurate=20 codices, indeed, all such additions, as well as the titles of the suras, = etc.,=20 were written in colored ink, while the black characters profess to = represent=20 exactly the original of Uthman. But there is probably no copy quite = faithful in=20 this respect.

The correct recitation of the Qur'an is an art difficult of = acquisition to=20 the Arabs themselves. Besides the artificial pronunciation mentioned = above, a=20 semi-musical modulation has to be observed. In these things also there = are great=20 differences between the various schools.

In European libraries, besides innumerable modern manuscripts of the = Qur'an,=20 there are also codices or fragments of high antiquity, some of them = probably=20 dating from the first century of the Flight. For the restoration of the = text,=20 however, the works of ancient scholars on its reading and modes of = writing are=20 more important than manuscripts, which, however elegantly they may be = written=20 and ornamented, proceed from irresponsible copyists. The original, = written by=20 Uthman himself, has indeed been exhibited in various parts of the = Muhammadan=20 world. The library of the India Office contains one such manuscript, = bearing the=20 subscription: "Written by Uthman the son of Affan." These, of course, = are=20 barefaced forgeries, although of very ancient date; so are those which = profess=20 to be from the hand of Ali, one of which is preserved in the same = library. In=20 recent times the Qur'an has been often printed and lithographed both in = the East=20 and West.

Shortly after Muhammad's death certain individuals applied themselves = to the=20 exposition of the Qur'an. Much of it was obscure from the beginning; = other=20 sections were unintelligible apart from a knowledge of the circumstances = of=20 their origin. Unfortunately those who took possession of this field are = not very=20 honorable. Ibn Abbas, a cousin of Muhammad's, and the chief source of = the=20 traditional exegesis of the Qur'an, has, on theological and other = grounds, given=20 currency to a number of falsehoods; and at least some of his pupils have = emulated his example. These earliest expositions dealt more with the = sense and=20 connection of the whole verses than with the separate words. Afterwards, = as the=20 knowledge of the old language declined, and the study of philology = arose, more=20 attention began to be paid to the explanation of vocables. A good many = fragments=20 of this older theological and philological exegesis have survived from = the first=20 two centuries of the Flight, although we have no complete commentary of = this=20 period. Most of the expository material will perhaps be found in the = very large=20 commentary of the celebrated Tabari (A.D. 839-923), of which an almost = complete=20 copy is in the Viceregal library at Cairo. Another very famous = commentary is=20 that of Zamakhshari (A.D. 1075-1144), edited by Nassau-Lee, Calcutta = 1859; but=20 this scholar, with his great insight and still greater subtlety, is too = apt to=20 read his own scholastic ideas into the Qur'an. The favorite commentary = of=20 Baidawi (died A.D. 1286) is little more than an abridgement of = Zamakhshari's.=20 Thousands of commentaries on the Qur'an, some of them of prodigious=20 size,² have been written by Muslims; and even the number of = those=20 extant in manuscripts is by no means small. Although these works contain = much=20 that is useless or false, yet they are invaluable aids to our = understanding of=20 the sacred book. An unbiased European can no doubt see many things at a = glance=20 more clearly than a good Muslim who is under the influence of religious=20 prejudice; but we should still be helpless without the exegetical = literature of=20 the Muhammadans.

Even the Arab Muslim of the present day can have but a very dim and = imperfect=20 understanding of the Qur'an, unless he has made a special study of its = exegesis.=20 For the great advantage, boasted by the holy book itself, of being = perspicuous=20 to everyone, has in the course of thirteen centuries vanished. Moreover, = the=20 general belief is that, in the ritual use of the Qur'an, if the correct=20 recitation is observed, it is immaterial whether the meaning of the = words be=20 understood or not.

A great deal remains to be accomplished by European scholarship for = the=20 correct interpretation of the Qur'an. We lack, for example, an = exhaustive=20 classification and discussion of all the Jewish elements in the Qur'an; = a=20 praiseworthy beginning has already been made in Geiger's youthful essay, = "Was=20 hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen?" We lack especially a = thorough=20 commentary, executed with the methods and resources of modern science. = No=20 European language, it would seem, can even boast of a translation which=20 completely satisfies modern requirements. The best are in English, where = we have=20 the extremely paraphrastic, but for its time admirable, translation of = Sale=20 (repeatedly printed), that of Rodwell (1861), which seeks to give the = pieces in=20 chronological order and that of Palmer (1880), who wisely follows the=20 traditional arrangements. The introduction which accompanies Palmer's=20 translation is not in all respects abreast of the most recent = scholarship.=20 Considerable extracts from the Qur'an are well translated in E.W. Lane's = Selections from the Kur-an.

Besides the commentaries on the whole Qur'an, or on special parts and = topics,=20 the Muslims possess a whole literature bearing on their sacred book. = There are=20 works on the spelling and right pronunciation of the Qur'an, works on = the beauty=20 of its language, on the number of its verses, words and letters, etc.; = nay,=20 there are even works which would nowadays be called "historical and = critical=20 introductions." Moreover, the origin of Arabic philology is intimately = connected=20 with the recitation and exegesis of the Qur'an. To exhibit the = importance of the=20 sacred book for the whole mental life of the Muslims, would be simply to = write=20 the history of that life itself; for there is no department in which its = all-pervading, but unfortunately not always salutary, influence has not = been=20 felt.

The unbounded reverence of the Muslims for the Qur'an reaches its = climax in=20 the dogma (which appeared at an early date through the influence of the=20 Christian doctrine of the eternal Word of God) that this book, as the = divine=20 Word, i.e., thought, is immanent in God, and consequently "eternal" and=20 "uncreated." That dogma has been accepted by almost all Muhammadans = since the=20 beginning of the third century. Some theologians did indeed protest = against it=20 with great energy; it was, in fact, too preposterous to declare that a = book=20 composed of unstable words and letters, and full of variants, was = absolutely=20 divine. But what were the distinctions and sophisms of the theologians = for, if=20 they could not remove such contradictions, and convict their opponents = of=20 heresy?

The following works may be specially consulted: Weil, Einleitung = in den=20 Koran, 2nd. ed., 1878; Th. N=F6ldeke, Geschichte des Qorans, = G=F6ttingen,=20 1860; and the Lives of Muhammad by Muir and Sprenger.

Notes:

1. Since in Arabic also the root rhm signifies `to have pity,' = the=20 Arabs must have at once perceived the force of the new name.

2. See... the commentary of Khalaf,. He had a 100-volume commentary = of the=20 Qur'an edited, the largest of many books of this sort, of which we have=20 knowledge.

Reference: N=F6ldeke, Theodor. "The Qur'an," Sketches from Eastern = History.=20 Trans. J.S. Black. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1892.=20

Writings= of=20 Theodor N=F6ldeke
Answering Islam = Home=20 Page